Knowles' Adult Learning Theory, also known as Andragogy, was developed by Malcolm Knowles in the 1970s (Pappas, 2013). It is a set of assumptions and principles that recognize the unique characteristics and needs of adult learners. Knowles believed that adult learners have different motivations, experiences, and learning styles compared to children or adolescent learners. Here are the key principles of Knowles' Adult Learning Theory (Dieck, 2020):

1. Learners have a need to know and are more self-directed in their learning. Adult learners are autonomous and take responsibility for their own learning. They prefer to be actively involved in the learning process and make choices based on their individual goals and needs. They value practical, relevant, and applicable knowledge that can be immediately applied to their personal and professional lives.

2. Adult learners bring a wealth of life experiences and knowledge to the learning environment. They prefer to build upon their existing knowledge and relate new information to their prior experiences. Recognizing and tapping into these experiences can enhance adult learning and make it more meaningful and engaging.

3. Learning climate: Creating a supportive and collaborative learning environment is important for adult learners. They value opportunities for open discussion, sharing experiences, and learning from one another. A positive and respectful learning climate encourages active participation and fosters a sense of belonging among adult learners.

4. Adult learners are motivated to learn and take responsibility for learning when they perceive the learning content as relevant and beneficial to their current situations. They are goal-oriented and prefer to learn things that have immediate practical implications. Providing clear objectives and demonstrating the value and applicability of the learning material helps to engage adult learners effectively.

5. There is an element of readiness in learning. Adult learners are problem-centered and task-oriented. They want to apply their learning to real-life situations and solve problems they encounter. They appreciate learning that is focused on their specific needs and interests. Instructional strategies that involve problem-solving, case studies, and simulations are effective in engaging adult learners.

6. Adults are intrinsically motivated to learn when they have a clear understanding of the personal benefits and rewards that come with learning. They appreciate learning opportunities that allow them to fulfill their personal and professional aspirations. Recognizing and appealing to their intrinsic motivation can enhance their engagement and commitment to the learning process.

Knowles' Adult Learning Theory has influenced the field of adult education and emphasizes the need for instructional strategies that cater to the unique characteristics and needs of adult learners. By recognizing their autonomy, prior experiences, motivations, and preferences, educators can design and deliver learning experiences that are engaging, relevant, and effective for adult learners.

Lev Vygotsky was a prominent Russian psychologist and philosopher who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development. Although Vygotsky's work is often associated with early childhood education, his theories have significant implications for higher education as well. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interactions, cultural context, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in learning and development. Vygotsky theorized learning is an individual undertaking with influence from social and cultural experiences (The Education Hub, 2021). 

In the context of higher education, Vygotsky's ideas can be applied in various ways:

1. Social Constructivism: Vygotsky's sociocultural theory highlights the importance of social interaction in learning. According to Vygotsky, learning is a collaborative process that occurs through interactions with more knowledgeable others. In a higher education setting, educators can foster social constructivist learning environments by promoting collaborative activities, group discussions, and peer-to-peer interactions. These interactions allow students to engage in shared meaning-making, problem-solving, and knowledge construction.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The concept of ZPD is central to Vygotsky's theory. The ZPD refers to the gap between a learner's actual developmental level and their potential developmental level with the support of a more knowledgeable other. In higher education, instructors can identify and scaffold students' learning within their ZPD. By providing appropriate guidance, feedback, and challenging tasks, educators can facilitate students' growth and help them reach their full potential.

3. Cultural Context: Vygotsky emphasized the influence of culture on cognitive development. In higher education, acknowledging and valuing the diverse cultural backgrounds and experiences of students is crucial. Recognizing the cultural context in which learning takes place can enhance student engagement and promote inclusive learning environments. It involves incorporating culturally relevant examples, perspectives, and materials into the curriculum to make learning more meaningful and relatable for students.

4. Mediation and Tools: Vygotsky emphasized the role of tools and cultural artifacts in mediating learning. In higher education, technology can serve as a powerful tool to support learning and enhance students' cognitive processes. Educators can integrate various technological tools, such as online resources, multimedia materials, and collaborative platforms, to facilitate information access, knowledge construction, and communication among students.

Zone of Proximal Development 

This article entitle What is the Zone of Proximal Development describes the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding in early education but can easily be applied to adult learning. All learners need support in their learning. Part of the role of the instructor is to determine what they already know and determine ways to support them to advance in their learning. As described above, a large focus is on social interactions to support learning. ZPD and scaffolding directly support adult learning due to emphasis on prior knowledge, self-assessment, and making adjustments for improvement (Cherry, 2023).

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is support in accomplishing a goal (The Education Hub, 2021). As the learners becomes more accomplished less scaffolding is needed. The learning build from one level to the next. Think about scaffolding during construction. 

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction is a framework developed by Robert Gagne, a renowned educational psychologist, to guide instructional design and enhance learning outcomes. The nine events represent a sequence of instructional events that help structure and optimize the learning process. Here's an explanation of each event along with references for further reading: 

Conditions for learning to take place

1. Gain Attention - Various ways to get the learners interested in the topic and get them to focus on the learning experience

• Tell an interesting story
• Video, image, audio clip or animation
• Ask a question that is thought provoking or requires critical thinking

2. State Objectives - Tell them what they will be learning about

• Identify what they will learn by the end
• State in a conversational way rather than stating objectives as identified in your syllabus.

3. Stimulate Recall - Connect what they will be learning to prior knowledge.

• Ask questions about what they may know.
• Share experiences.
• Refer to something already taught in course or in a previous course.

4. Present Content - Here is where the new information is shared with the learner.

• Align with objectives.
• Teach in various formats (video, text, lecture, audio). Incorporate Universal Design for Learning practices.
• Chunk information and present in an organized way.

5. Provide Guidance - Support/Scaffold the learning. 

• Use examples.
• Provide clear expectations and instructions.
• Practice opportunities.
• Share strategies for remembering the new information (flashcards, mnemonics, tips).

6. Elicit Performance - Learners will demonstrate new knowledge.

• Low stakes practice opportunities.
• Formative.

7. Provide Feedback - Let learners know how they are doing and what they can do to improve.

• Timely.
• Constructive.
• Opportunities to improve.

8. Assess Performance - Learners demonstrate new knowledge and improvement.

• Often higher stakes.
• Summative. Could also be formative if necessary.

9. Enhance Transfer - Reinforces and applies what was learned.

• Use what was learned in "real life".
• Demonstrated through case studies, simulations, scenarios, role playing, etc.